Method and apparatus for reconfiguring internal power source and load impedance elements of an electrical network associated with a vehicle, including use of vehicle data and performance evaluations of another vehicle

ABSTRACT

An apparatus and method are provided for adjusting an electrical configuration of a plurality of components of an electrical network associated with a vehicle in order to tune electrical characteristics of the electrical network to continuously match a dynamically changing desired mode of operation of the electrical network associated with the vehicle. Vehicle data and performance evaluations of another vehicle are used in the process.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of copending U.S. Non-Provisionalpatent application Ser. No. 18/087,366 filed Dec. 22, 2022, which, inturn, is a continuation of U.S. Non-Provisional patent application Ser.No. 16/876,883 filed May 18, 2020, now U.S. Pat. No. 11,548,396, both ofwhich are incorporated by reference herein.

This application claims priority to copending U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 62/970,449 filed Feb. 5, 2020, which is incorporated byreference herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1 History of Electric Vehicles (EVs)

According to Wikipedia and the Edison Tech Center, the first rotaryelectric motors were invented in the 1830s(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_electric_motor. AccessedJan. 28, 2020; https://edisontechcenter.org/ElectricCars.html. AccessedJan. 28, 2020). Thomas Davenport built a motor in 1834 that would laterdrive a miniature railcar on a tabletop. The battery was notrechargeable, and it was too heavy for the railcar to pull. Over thenext century, new inventions and improvements contributed to thecommercial success of electric automobiles, a subset of EVs. Arechargeable lead-acid battery was invented in 1854, and a high-torqueDC traction motor was invented in 1886. In 1890, the chemist WilliamMorrison built the first electric automobile powered by his batteries.

By 1910, almost 40 percent of road vehicles were electric automobiles.They were the preferred automobile of cab service companies. Womenliving in cities also preferred driving them because they were easier tostart than gas cars, which relied on hand cranks. Although the cars hada relatively short driving distance, they met the needs of owners livingin dense cities. Owners could recharge their cars at home with newbattery charging technology. Influential EV inventors of this timeincluded William Morrison, Thomas Parker and Walter C. Baker. Parker wasan inventor who built one of the first electric cars and contributed tobattery technology. Baker sold electric cars with improvements like ballbearings and Vanadium steel axles. Various kinds of hybrid electric carswere sold during this time, too. They had an engine-generator whichcharged a battery that ran their electric motors.

Gas cars eventually became cheaper to drive than electric cars due tomass production and cheap oil. Improvements to gas cars made them evenmore appealing. Starter motors replaced hand cranks, and mufflersquieted the noisy engine. While gas car prices were falling, electriccar prices continued to rise. Cities were expanding, and gasoline servedas a more practical power source than electric batteries to cover longerdistances. Electric automobiles subsequently faded out of interest fordecades.

The oil crisis in the 1970s prompted some companies to start buildingEVs. The US government started funding research for better batteries.Meanwhile, computers became compact enough to fit inside vehicles. Theyhelped to improve the efficiency of hybrid cars with computer-controlledsystems.

2 Modern Electric Cars

Electric cars are a rapidly growing sector of the transportationindustry. The main difference between gas and electric cars is thepropulsion system. In a gas car, an internal combustion engine powersthe wheels through the transmission and drivetrain. In contrast, anelectric motor powers the wheels in an electric car. A motor convertspower from an electrical source into rotary motion. Rechargeablebatteries and engine-generators are the main sources of electricity foran electric car's motors.

Electric cars powered exclusively by batteries are called all-electricvehicles (AEVs). They are typically charged directly from the power gridthrough a connection port and can typically drive 150 to 250 miles percharge. Currently, some of the most popular models include the NissanLeaf, Chevy Bolt, and Tesla Model 3. Hybrid electric cars have both abattery and an engine-generator, which can extend the range by over 250miles. The Toyota Prius is a well-known hybrid. Most hybrids run only ongasoline, which fuels the engine-generator that provides theelectricity. Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) have both a fuel tank and anexternal charge port for charging the battery directly. They can runlike an all-electric car until the battery is depleted and then switchto hybrid mode. These cars are meant for users whose typical drivingdistance falls within the 20-to-40-mile range of a small EV battery.

A Consumer Reports article titled “Electric Cars 101”(https://www.consumerreports.org/hybrids-evs/electric-cars-101-the-answers-to-all-your-ev-questions/.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020) explains why car buyers are going electric. MostEV owners like that their cars consume less resources than gas cars; anelectric motor is much more efficient at converting stored energy intomotion than is an internal combustion engine. Unless an engine-generatoris running, an EV does not produce tailpipe emissions that pollute theair with smog. Another attractive feature is the lower cost of driving.According to Consumer Reports, “[Plug-in] electric cars offersignificantly lower fuel costs compared to traditional, gas-poweredcars. On average, a gallon of gasoline costs about twice as much as thecomparable cost to run an electric car. That's especially true ifdrivers take advantage of off-peak electricity rates while charging athome. And electric rates tend to be more stable than oil prices.” Theelectric motors in hybrids allow them to achieve high MPG. Federal andstate tax incentives have promoted EV sales in the US, as has access toHOV lanes in certain states. AEVs require less maintenance than gas carsbecause they have fewer moving parts, and EV owners can charge at homeinstead of refueling at a gas station.

Currently, EV batteries are commonly charged at three voltage levels:Level 1 (120V), Level 2 (240V), and DC fast charge (480V). Owners mostcommonly charge their cars at 120V from a standard residential walloutlet. This voltage typically provides two to five miles of range perhour. Level 2 chargers typically provide ten to twenty miles of rangeper hour, and they are most commonly found at public charging stationsand workplaces. Some EV owners install Level 2 outlets at home forfaster charging. DC fast charging can provide 60 to 80 miles of range ormore in 20 minutes. These chargers are almost exclusively located atpublic charging stations.

Most EVs commercially available in North America have a SAE J1772connector that can charge the battery at Level 1 or Level 2. Exceptionsinclude Tesla vehicles which have a proprietary connector capable of allcharging levels, and adapters allow them to connect to J1772 plugs (Jplugs). Only certain electric cars have DC fast charging connectors.While DC fast charge connectors come standard in all Tesla models and inthe 2019 Hyundai Ionic Electric, they cost an additional $750 in the2019 Chevrolet Bolt, and only the more expensive PLUS models of theNissan Leaf have fast charging capabilities. Plug-in hybrids generallydo not support fast charging because their small batteries can chargerelatively quickly with a Level 2 charger. DC fast charging connectorsdiffer from one manufacturer to another. North American cars usuallyhave a combo connector called SAE J1772 CCS, and Japanese cars usuallyhave a separate CHAdeMO connector.

EV travelers need reliable public charging stations, and numerouscompanies have started providing this service. ChargePoint is thebiggest charging network, reaching 100,000 chargers worldwide inSeptember 2019. ChargePoint is projected to reach 260,000 chargers byDecember 2021 and plans to reach 2.5 million by 2025. ChargePoint offersboth Level 2 and DC Fast Charging. Tesla users can recharge at Level 2Destination Charging stations and fast charge at Tesla Superchargerstations. They can also charge from any J1772 connector with an adapter.Other charging networks include EVgo, Blink, SemaConnect, and ElectrifyAmerica.

According to the website PluginCars (“Ultimate Guide to Electric CarCharging Networks”(https://www.plugincars.com/ultimate-guide-electric-car-charging-networks-126530.html.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020) and “The Real Price of EV Public Charging”(https://www.plugincars.com/guide-to-public-charging-costs.html.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020)), the majority of Level 2 stations are free.They are hosted by businesses like hotels, restaurants and shoppingcenters trying to attract EV-driving customers. Other public chargersrequire EV users to pay, and companies are experimenting with differentprice strategies. Level 2 stations charge customers either by the minuteor by the kilowatt-hour (kWh). Most AEVs can charge at 6 to 8 kW.Ignoring inefficiencies, every customer pays the same for per-kWhcharging, but customers with faster chargers, which have higher powerratings, pay less per-kWh on per-minute pricing. DC fast chargingstations often charge a one-time session fee. Membership fees may or maynot be required to charge from certain networks. The cited PluginCarsarticles state that Level 2 public charging may cost slightly more thanresidential charging, and fast charging costs twice as much asresidential charging.

EVs are hampered by the drawbacks of rechargeable batteries. Batterycapacity significantly decreases in cold temperatures, which meansall-electric range is shorter in cold weather. To maximize all-electricrange, the Department of Energy (DOE) recommends using accessories andtemperature controls wisely(https://www.energy.gov/eere/electricvehicles/maximizing-electric-cars-range-extreme-temperatures.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020). Heating the cabin when the EV is plugged inwill preserve battery charge, as will using seat warmers instead of heatwhile driving. Any power the car uses to play the stereo, stream music,or charge mobile devices directly shortens its all-electric range,though these are often negligible when compared to heating and airconditioning. Most cars have an economy mode which limits acceleration,since fast acceleration consumes significant energy. Gentle brakingactivates the regenerative braking system. Hard braking activates thebrake pads, which wastes recoverable energy and wears them out overtime.

Electric cars come with unique dangers. Their high-voltage systems andlarge lithium-ion batteries are extremely dangerous and must be keptunder control at all times, especially during a collision. EVs are muchquieter than gas cars since they lack a noisy engine. Some EVs emit anoise at low speeds so that pedestrians will notice them.

The DOE page on electric car maintenance(https://www.energy.gov/eere/electricvehicles/electric-car-safety-maintenance-and-battery-life.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020) states, “In general, AEVs require lessmaintenance than conventional vehicles because there are usually fewerfluids (like oil and transmission fluid) to change and far fewer movingparts. In contrast, because PHEVs have gasoline engines, maintenancerequirements for this system are similar to those in conventionalvehicles.” Most manufacturers offer 8-year/100,000-mile warranties onbatteries.

2.1 Controller Area Network and Electronic Control Units

According to Wikipedia, a controller area network (CAN bus) allows theembedded systems within a vehicle to communicate without needing a hostcomputer (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAN_bus). Each system andsubsystem is controlled by a dedicated electronic control unit (ECU)which usually consists of a microcontroller, memory, a sensor interface,a communications interface, and an actuator driver. There is usually anECU dedicated to controlling each one of the engine, transmission,motorized doors, airbag deployment, cruise control, and batterymanagement system.

2.2 Intelligent Vehicles

Much like phones, cars are getting smarter. Modern cars have Wi-Fi andLTE capabilities, and much research focuses on vehicle-to-infrastructure(V2I) and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. Dedicated short-rangecommunications (DSRC) are wireless communication channels reserved forautomobiles which often work in the 5.9 GHz band with a range of 300meters. Many new vehicles use computer vision to drivesemi-automatously. Generally, the most advanced self-driving cars candetect anything a human driver can. Using cameras and other sensors,cars can detect and predict road inclination and curvature, weather, andtraffic, and they can communicate that information over the Internet andto nearby cars.

2.3 Battery Technology

A battery consists of one or more cells that convert stored chemicalenergy into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions.According to Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric battery.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020), there are two categories of batteries: primaryand secondary. Primary batteries are not rechargeable because theirelectrochemical reaction cannot easily be reversed, and they arediscarded when they cannot supply sufficient power. Alkaline batteriesare a common type of primary battery. Secondary batteries arerechargeable because their electrochemical reaction can be reversed byapplying a voltage to their terminals. Common types of secondarybatteries include lead acid, lithium-ion (Li-ion), lithium-ion polymer(LiPo), and nickel metal hydride (NiMH). The most common battery typesused in EVs today are lithium-ion and lithium-ion polymer. A vehicle'sall-electric range, weight, and price depend on the number of cells inits battery pack.

Battery technology currently faces several problems, and they are notlimited to the EV industry. Lithium-ion batteries are still quiteexpensive, costing hundreds of dollars per kWh. According to theAmerican Physical Society(https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201208/backpage.cfm. AccessedJan. 29, 2020), the energy density of lithium-ion batteries is 100 timeslower than gasoline. Lithium-ion batteries self-discharge quite rapidly,and their charge capacity drops in cold weather and with repeated use.Subjecting EV batteries to high power condition such as acceleration,fast charging, and regenerative braking shortens their lifespans.Additionally, the mining process of raw materials is plagued by humanrights issues, including child labor in the Democratic Republic ofCongo. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists(https://blog.ucsusa.org/josh-goldman/electric-vehicles-batteries-cobalt-and-rare-earth-metals.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020), as of 2017, forty thousand Congolese childrenmine cobalt under harsh conditions. The DRC supplies 50 to 60 percent ofthe world's cobalt supply for lithium-ion batteries. Since batteries aresuch a limiting factor for EV technology and widespread adoption ofelectric cars, the U.S. Department of Energy's Vehicle Technology Officeis researching ways to improve them(https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/batteries. Accessed Jan. 28,2020). It has three main goals to make driving EVs as convenient and asaccessible as driving gas cars:

-   -   1. Reduce the cost of electric vehicle batteries to less than        $100/kWh, ultimately $80/kWh    -   2. Increase range of electric vehicles to 300 miles    -   3. Decrease charge time to 15 minutes or less.

Additionally, battery recycling can help keep hazardous materials out oflandfills and alleviate demand for raw materials, according to the VTO'sAlternative Fuels Data Center(https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_batteries.html. Accessed Jan.28, 2020).

Another problem with lithium-ion battery cells is that parallel cellsmust have similar internal resistances to avoid overheating. Accordingto Gogoana et al.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378775313019447.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020), at 4.5 Coulomb charge and discharge, a 20%internal resistance mismatch between two parallel cells reduces thelifetime of the pair by 40% when compared to cells with similarresistances. Both cells experience large currents and high temperatures.

2.3.1 History of Electric Batteries

The history of electric battery technology begins with the Voltaic pilein the late eighteenth century, according to the Wikipedia article aboutelectric batteries. It was the first reliable source of continuouselectric current and contributed to many scientific discoveries. Eachelectrochemical cell contained a copper cathode disc and a zinc anodedisc separated by brine-soaked cloth or cardboard serving as theelectrolyte. Multiple cells were piled vertically to form a Voltaicpile. The Daniell cell was invented in 1836 and greatly improved batterytechnology for industrial purposes like telegraph networks. Lead-acidbatteries, invented in 1859, were the first secondary (rechargeable)cells, and they remain in use today. Although heavy, they areinexpensive and produce high currents. Lithium-ion batteries are a morerecent invention, gaining commercial success in the 1970s. They are usedin EVs and personal electronic devices, where energy density is moreimportant than low-cost energy storage.

2.4 EV Circuit Introduction

An electric circuit transfers power from a source to a load. The sourcesupplies a certain amount of power, which depends on its voltage andoutput current, and the load absorbs a certain amount of power, whichdepends on its impedance. Batteries and generators are some common powersources. Motors and lights are some common loads.

FIG. 1 shows a circuit with an ideal source that outputs its nominalvoltage. The source delivers all of its output power to the load. Realsources are not ideal. They lose some power when pumping current fromnegative to positive terminals.

By an analytical technique called Thevenin's Theorem, a loss may bemodeled as an internal impedance between a battery's positive terminaland a load's positive terminal. FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 show a circuit with anon-ideal battery and a load, separated by a switch. The battery isnon-ideal because it has an internal impedance R_(i), which is modeledby a resistor. Before closing the switch (FIG. 2 ), every conductortouching the battery's positive terminal acquires the same voltage. Avoltmeter measures V_(B) between the battery's terminals. Upon closingthe switch (FIG. 3 ), current flows across the internal impedance andthe DC motor. Here, a voltmeter measures V_(B)(R_(L)+_(i))).

Engineers are often concerned with maximizing power transfer andefficiency. Maximum power transfer is attained by matching a source'sinternal impedance Z_(i) and a load impedance Z_(L). Maximum efficiencyis attained by maximizing the ratio P_(L)/P_(i), the ratio of the realpower consumed by the load to the real power consumed by the internalimpedance.

To keep track of power flowing through an electric car, it helps toclassify components as strict sources, strict load, and reversiblecomponents. Strict sources always supply power and never consume itunder normal operating conditions. Examples include engine-generators,hydrogen fuel cells, and photovoltaic solar panels. Strict loads alwaysconsume power and never supply it under normal operating conditions,such HVAC systems, on-board CPUs, sensors, lights, and stereos.Reversible components can either supply or consume power depending onthe operating condition. For example, rechargeable batteries andultracapacitors supply current while discharging, and they absorbcurrent while recharging. Traction motors consume power while drivingand generate power during regenerative braking. The power system of anEV may form many combinations of sources and loads over the course of atrip. The engine-generator may charge the battery, the battery may drivethe motors, and the motors may regeneratively charge the battery.

FIGS. 5 through 9 demonstrate how to determine certain electricalcharacteristics. These methods are valid for both DC circuits and ACphasor circuits. FIG. 5 shows a non-ideal voltage source disconnectedfrom a load impedance. The unknown characteristics are the loadimpedance Z_(L), the voltage source V_(S), and the internal impedanceZ_(i). To determine Z_(L), a known test voltage V₁ is placed across theload's terminals, and the resulting current I₁ is measured with anammeter (FIG. 6 ). Thus, Z_(L) equals V₁/I₁. To determine V_(S), avoltmeter is placed across the non-ideal load (FIG. 7 ). Assuming thevoltmeter has an infinite impedance, V_(S) equals the measuredopen-circuit voltage V_(OC). To determine Z_(i), a test impedance Z₂ isplaced across the non-ideal voltage source, and the resulting current I₂is measured with an ammeter (FIG. 8 ). Since V_(OC)/I₂=Z_(i)+Z₂, itfollows that Z_(i)=V_(OC)/I₂−Z₂. An alternative way to determine Z_(i)is by measuring the voltage V₂ across Z₂ (FIG. 9 ). The I₂ term isreplaced by V₂/Z₂, which yields Z_(i)=V_(OC)*(Z₂/V₂)−Z₂.

Supercapacitors (SCs) are a promising energy storage technology for EVsbecause they can handle more power per unit of weight thanlithium-ion-batteries can. Each SC cell often has a voltage rating ofabout 2.7 V, and they are stacked in series when a higher voltage isdesired. One problem with stacking them in series is that leakagecurrent from one cell can overcharge and damage other cells. A SC leakscurrent from its cathode, and the amount of leakage current increaseswith its voltage. FIG. 12 shows the prior art configuration of SCs C1and C2 stacked in series with a voltage source V⁺. C1 has a voltageV₁=V⁺−V_(OUT), and it leaks current I₁. C2 has a voltage V₂=V_(OUT), andit leaks current I₂. If I₁ exceeds I₂, then more charge accumulates onC2's anode than leaves its cathode. Since V_(C)∝Q_(C) for a capacitor,and since leakage current increases with voltage, V₂ increases until I₂matches I₁. C2 risks failure if V₂ exceeds the maximum voltage rating.Likewise, C1 risks failure if I₂ exceeds I₁. FIG. 13 shows a prior artconfiguration for two SC cells stacked in series with automaticbalancing MOSFETs Q1 and Q2. This configuration prevents over-voltagebecause the MOSFETs provide safe paths for current to recharge theleakier cell. The configuration comes from the article “A New Method ofBalancing Supercapacitors in Series Stack Using MOSFETs” by AdvancedLinear Devices(mouser.com/pdfDocs/ALD_New_Method_Balancing_Supereapacitors.pdf.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020).

3 Prior Art for Component Reconfiguration and Impedance Readjustment

EVs achieve better efficiency and lower carbon emissions thangas-powered vehicles. To increase their efficiency and performancefurther, reconfigurable hybrid energy storage systems have beendeveloped. These systems adjust the connections between energy storagecomponents to meet a load requirement or absorb regenerative power. Forexample, U.S. Pat. No. 10,293,702 (the '702 patent) by Tu and Emadidescribes a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) containing arechargeable battery, an ultracapacitor, an engine-generator, and a DClink. Depending on the driving conditions and the load requirement, theHESS reconfigures two or more components in series, in parallel, or inseries-parallel. Components may also be disconnected from the circuit.Tu's 2015 PhD thesis from McMaster University(https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a308/8eO9ae7a4dae0eb9f249b2e5a2b91716821f.pdf.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020), which corresponds to the '702 patent, depictsin FIG. 4.5 several possible circuit configurations for a battery, anultracapacitor, power electronic converters (PECs), and a load. Theconfigurations are series, parallel, and versions of series-parallel.Table 4.1 ranks certain HESS configurations based on their power flowefficiency and their utilization of ultracapacitor energy. The HESSconfigurations in Tu's thesis do not account for the impedances of thesource(s) and load(s).

Chinese Pat. No. 102,222,967 describes an inductive wireless EV chargerthat continuously monitors and adjusts the number of turns in thesecondary coil to match the input/output impedance.

U.S. Pat. No. 2,745,067 (the '067 patent) by True et al. describes aninvention that automatically matches the magnitude and phase angle ofone component to a second component with a known impedance. The firstcomponent may be an antenna, and the second component may be atransmitter. The '067 patent states, “This invention is not limited touse with either transmitters or antennas. This system may be adapted foruse in any A. C. circuit. For example, commercial power lines may havetheir power factors automatically controlled by an embodiment of thisinvention. Another adaptation of this device is to control the impedanceof a dielectric heating device such as disclosed by R. H. Hagopian inthe December 1950 issue of Electronics on page 98.” The signals in the'067 are analog and the switching components are mechanical. Thisinvention only works with AC signals.

Power sources with varying output power such as photovoltaic cells usemaximum power point tracking to ensure the source transfers maximumpower to the load regardless of operating conditions. A power convertersuch as a buck converter can control the ratio of the output-to-inputimpedance by adjusting the duty ratio of the converter. A Wikipediaarticle about buck converters(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_converter. Accessed Jan. 28, 2020)states, “this is particularly useful in applications where theimpedance(s) are dynamically changing.”

4 Summary of Needs

The prior art does not account for dynamic electrical characteristicstuning, wherein the electrical characteristics of the components arecontinuously changing along with desired modes of operation. What isneeded is an automated method for reconfiguring an electricalconfiguration of a plurality of components of an electrical networkassociated with a vehicle in order to tune electrical characteristics ofthe electrical network to continuously match a dynamically changingdesired mode of operation of the electrical network associated with thevehicle. The method should optimize the electrical characteristics toattain desired performance, efficiency, power, longevity, and otherparameters.

Definitions

The following definitions describe the use of certain terms in thisspecification. They are hierarchically ordered in that each definitionbuilds on previous definitions.

Element—A physical or abstract part of an electrical circuit. An elementmay consist of one or more elements. Examples include batteries,supercapacitors, motors, generators, and impedances.

Component—See “element”

Electric Vehicle (EV)—An electric vehicle uses electricity from abattery, generator, solar cell, fuel cell, or other source ofelectricity to power, at least in part, the locomotion of a vehicle thatcan transport a load. The vehicle could be an automobile, locomotive,golf cart, mining train, forklift, robot, or other device. Thelocomotion is usually provided by rotary electric motors but could alsobe provided from linear motors, solenoids, or any other type ofelectrostatic or electromagnetic device. A spacecraft propelled by ionthrusters is a specialized type of electric vehicle. The spacecraftachieves acceleration by ejecting a stream of ions accelerated across apotential difference away from the desired direction of motion.

Electrical Tuning Engine (ETE)—An ETE receives inputs about anelectrical system and automatically reconfigures it to meet certaindemands.

Impedance matching—Refers to making a source impedance equal the complexconjugate of a load impedance in order to maximize real powertransferred from the source to the load.

Impedance pairing—Refers to adjusting the ratio of a source impedance toa load impedance in order to transfer a desired amount of power.

SC or UC—Supercapacitor or Ultracapacitor

Energy Storage System (ESS)—Any device or component which stores energywithin an electrical system. Examples include batteries, SCs, andengine-generators. The device may be electrostatic, electromagnetic,electrochemical, electromechanical, etc.

Hybrid Energy Storage Systems (HESS)—A reconfigurable electrical systemconsisting of multiple types of ESSs.

Strict Source—An electrical component which supplies power but neverconsumes it under normal operating conditions.

Strict Load—An electrical component which consumes power but neversupplies it under normal operating conditions.

Reversible Component—An electrical component which supplies power undersome operating conditions and consumes power under other operatingconditions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing summary as well as the following detailed description ofpreferred embodiments of the invention will be better understood whenread in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose ofillustrating the invention, the drawings show presently preferredembodiments. However, the invention is not limited to the precisearrangements and instrumentalities shown. In the drawings:

FIG. 1 shows the prior art configuration for an ideal battery with avoltage V_(B) connected to a resistive load R_(L). A voltmeter measuresa voltage equal to V_(B).

FIG. 2 shows the prior art configuration for a non-ideal battery with avoltage V_(B) and a purely resistive internal impedance R_(i). Thebattery is disconnected from a purely resistive load impedance R_(L) byan open switch. A voltmeter measures a voltage equal to V_(B).

FIG. 3 shows the prior art configuration for a non-ideal battery withvoltage V_(B) and a purely resistive internal impedance R_(i) connectedto a purely resistive load impedance R_(L) by a closed switch. Avoltmeter measures a voltage equal to V_(B)(R_(L)/(R_(i)+R_(L))).

FIG. 4 shows the prior art configuration for a reconfigurable HESS fromthe '702 patent.

FIG. 5 shows the prior art configuration of a non-ideal voltage sourcedisconnected from a load impedance.

FIG. 6 shows the prior art configuration for determining an unknown loadimpedance Z_(L). A known voltage V₁ is supplied across the load'sterminals, and a resulting current I₁ is measured with an ammeter. Theload impedance may be determined by calculating Z_(L)=V₁/I₁.

FIG. 7 shows the prior art configuration for determining an unknownvoltage source V_(S) by measuring an open-circuit voltage V_(OC). Thevoltage source also has an unknown Thevenin-equivalent internalimpedance Z_(i).

FIG. 8 shows the prior art configuration for determining Z_(i) from FIG.7 by placing a test impedance Z₂ across the source's terminals,measuring a resulting current I₂, and calculating Z_(i)=(V_(OC)/I₂)−Z₂.

FIG. 9 shows the prior art configuration for determining Z_(i) from FIG.7 by placing a test impedance Z₂ across the source's terminals,measuring the voltage V₂ across Z₂, and calculatingZ_(i)=V_(OC)*(Z₂/V₂)−Z₂.

FIG. 10 shows the prior art configuration for two pairs of parallelbattery cells with mismatched internal resistances. Cells (1) and (2)form the first pair, and cells (3) and (4) form the second pair. Cells(1) and (3) have internal resistances of 1.0Ω, and cells (2) and (4)have internal resistances of 1.2Ω. All batteries have the same voltageV_(B).

FIG. 11 shows the prior art model for a constant air-gap induction motorequivalent circuit. The electrical load R_(L) represents the mechanicalload of the rotor.

FIG. 12 shows the prior art configuration for two supercapacitorsstacked in series.

FIG. 13 shows the prior art configuration for two supercapacitorsstacked in series with auto-balancing MOSFETs.

FIG. 14 shows an Electrical Tuning Engine in accordance with onepreferred embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 15 shows the Electrical Tuning Engine of FIG. 14 in greater detail.

FIG. 16 shows a configuration module with multiple voltage sources andmultiple load impedances.

FIG. 17 shows the configuration in FIG. 16 where the internal sourceimpedances are shown explicitly.

FIG. 18 shows the configuration module from FIG. 17 where the non-idealsources constitute an output impedance stage.

FIG. 19 shows the configuration module from FIG. 17 where the loadimpedances constitute an input impedance stage.

FIG. 20 shows a configuration module with a single voltage source V_(S)with internal impedance Z_(i) and a single load impedance Z_(L).

FIG. 21 shows a configuration module where a Thevenin voltage sourceV_(Th) with Thevenin impedance Z_(Th) is connected to one side and twoload impedances Z_(L1) and Z_(L2) are connected to the other side.Switches S1 and S2 are single-pole double-throw, but they are shown herein a neutral position for sake of demonstration.

FIG. 22 shows the configuration module from FIG. 21 where the loadimpedances Z_(L1) and Z_(L2) are configured in parallel. The equivalentload impedance Z_(L,eq) is

Z _(L1) ∥Z _(L2) =Z _(L1) *Z _(L2)/(Z _(L1) +Z _(L2)).

FIG. 23 shows the configuration module from FIG. 21 where the loadimpedances Z_(L1) and Z_(L2) are configured in series. The equivalentload impedance Z_(L,eq) is Z_(L1)+Z_(L2).

FIG. 24 shows the reconfigurable ESS from FIG. 4 with an electricaltuning engine connected between the ESSs and the DC link.

FIG. 25 shows a Thevenin-equivalent circuit diagram of FIG. 24 .

FIG. 26 shows the reconfigurable ESS from FIG. 4 where electrical tuningengines (8) and (9) are embedded within ESS1 and ESS2.

FIG. 27 shows the configuration from FIG. 10 where a configurationmodule (5) has paired cells of matching impedances in parallel.

FIG. 28 shows a configuration of battery cells where a series of fivecells is connected in parallel with a series of four cells.

FIG. 29 shows a configuration of capacitors where a series of fivecapacitors is connected in parallel with a series of four capacitors.

FIG. 30 shows a source consisting of multiple elements beforereconfiguration, where a load impedance is connected to the source.

FIG. 31 shows a source consisting of multiple elements afterreconfiguration, where a load impedance is connected to the source.

FIG. 32 shows six components connected to a configuration module.

FIGS. 33 a and 33 b show flowcharts for the method of determining a modeof operation and configuring the internal elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Certain terminology is used herein for convenience only and is not to betaken as a limitation on the present invention. The words “a” and “an”,as used in the claims and in the corresponding portions of thespecification, mean “at least one.”

5 Purpose of the Invention

Power in electric cars usually flows from large lithium-ion batteriesthrough a controller to traction motors. Power transfer depends on theelectrical characteristics of the electrical components, which maychange dynamically. There exists a need for an electrical tuning enginefor dynamic, continuously changing electrical characteristics such asimpedances, especially for DC and low-frequency AC power systems inelectric cars.

An electrical tuning engine (ETE) adjusts an electrical configuration ofmultiple components of an electrical network. A signal flow diagram ofthe ETE is shown in FIG. 14 . A more detailed version is shown in FIG.15 . The ETE has the following modules: demands module, electricalcharacteristic determination module, calculation module, andconfiguration module. Each one will be described in more detail later.The ETE is part of an apparatus (system) that automatically adjusts anelectrical configuration of a plurality of components of an electricalnetwork associated with a vehicle in order to tune electricalcharacteristics of the electrical network to continuously match adynamically changing desired mode of operation of the electrical networkassociated with the vehicle, as described in further detail below.

The ETE accepts user inputs, external inputs, and sensor inputs. Userinputs are parameters coming directly from the user, such as the tripdestination, the preselected EV mode, heating and cooling settings, andforces on the pedals. External inputs are parameters not coming directlyfrom the user, such as vehicle speed and location, fuel and chargelevels, computer vision, blind spot detection, GPS, traffic, roadconditions, and weather. Sensor inputs are measured parameters ofon-board and off-board electrical components, such as charge, voltage,amperage, resistance, capacitance, inductance, temperature, and EMFstrength.

The configuration module of the ETE is connected to internal componentsand external components. Internal components include batteries, SCs,motors, and PECs. External components include the electrical grid, powerplants, solar panels, and other cars' electrical systems. Theconnections between the module and components may be signals, such asdigital and analog commands and communications. The connections may alsoconduct considerable power between the configuration module and thecomponents. Sensors measure electrical characteristics of thecomponents. The component characteristics are fed back into the ETE assensor inputs.

In performance mode, the ETE should monitor the sources and loads andautomatically adjust them to maximize power transfer. FIG. 17 showsanother embodiment of FIG. 16 which explicitly shows the sources withtheir internal impedances. Maximizing power transfer from the source tothe load requires the load impedance to closely match the complexconjugate of the equivalent input impedance. Part of the configurationmodule may adjust the source while another part of the configurationmodule may adjust the load simultaneously. FIG. 18 shows anotherembodiment of FIG. 16 wherein the sources' internal impedances form anoutput impedance stage. FIG. 19 shows another embodiment of FIG. 16wherein the load impedances form an input impedance stage.

FIG. 20 shows a circuit with a single non-ideal voltage source and asingle load impedance connected to a configuration module. Maximum poweris transferred from the source to the load when the load impedancematches the complex conjugate of the internal impedance of the source.The load represents the stage immediately after the power source.

Efficiency mode would improve the efficiency of an electric car. A highefficiency means the load receives the majority of the source's realpower. This happens when either (1) the real/resistive part of the loadimpedance greatly exceeds the source's real/resistive internalimpedance, (2) when the load impedance greatly exceeds the outputimpedance from FIG. 18 (i.e., Re(Z_(L))>>Re(Z_(output))), or (3) whenthe input impedance greatly exceeds the source impedance from FIG. 19(i.e., Re(Z_(input))>>Re(Z_(S))).

Preferred embodiments of the invention may operate in a mode calledbalanced mode which transfers more real power to the load thanefficiency mode but less real power than performance mode. To achievethis, the real power delivered to the load exceeds real power deliveredto the source. A fourth mode called wasteful mode transfers much morereal power to the source's internal impedance than to the load. Thismode may be desired when conditioning batteries and SCs or intentionallygenerating heat for other reasons. To summarize, preferred embodimentsof the invention have several operating modes:

-   -   In performance mode, the load and source impedances are exactly        or approximately complex conjugates: Re(Z_(L))≅Re(Z_(S)*).    -   In efficiency mode, the load is much greater than the source:        Re(Z)>>Re(Z_(S)).    -   In balanced mode, the load is moderately greater than the        source: Re(Z_(L))>Re(Z_(S)).    -   In wasteful mode, the source is much greater than the load:        Re(Z_(S))>>Re(Z_(L)).

FIG. 11 shows the prior art equivalent circuit for a constant air-gapinduction motor. The circuit models a traction motor inside an EV. Theload resistance R_(L) is the electrical representation of the mechanicalload of the rotor. Suppose FIG. 18 represents an EV power system whereinpower flows from one or more ESSs through a controller to tractionmotors. The load impedance is equivalent to R_(L) from FIG. 11 . Theterm Z_(output) from FIG. 18 is the Thevenin-equivalent impedance, or anapproximation of the impedance, of all the stages before R_(L),including the ESS's internal impedance, the controller's impedance, andthe equivalent impedance of the rest of the circuit components in FIG.11 .

The ETE could also configure circuits that manage reactive powercompensation. For example, in power systems with induction motors, theETE could reduce reactive power consumed by the load by connecting it toa source of reactive power, such as a capacitor bank or a synchronousgenerator.

Preferred embodiments of the invention may utilize wireless transmittersand receivers, such as those used in communication systems and wirelesscharging.

Preferred embodiments of the invention may configure a supercapacitorauto-balancing circuit that would prevent leakage currents fromovercharging component SCs.

Preferred embodiments of the invention may configure a regenerativebraking system dynamically for different vehicle speeds and roadinclinations.

Preferred embodiments of the invention may utilize an operatingdatabase, which communicates with the electrical characteristicsdetermination module and with the calculation module. The operatingdatabase logs which components have been installed in the vehicle andtheir associated specifications. It can also log historical data aboutthe configurations including their performance metrics and theirassociated sensor inputs.

Preferred embodiments of the invention may incorporate from externalsources data about the performance of other vehicles on local roads, orother vehicle passageways, and any expected or unexpected conditionsthey have encountered. The external data would be transmitted viacommunication channels such as vehicle-to-vehicle, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,satellite, and radio. The type of communication network may be aninfrastructure network or an ad-hoc network.

The ETE may possess machine-learning and AI capabilities to improve itsautomatic decisions over time. This function may augment or interactwith the operating database and the external data sources. The databasemight contain precomputed decision trees, statistical information, orother data. Preferred embodiments of the invention also communicate toservers over vehicle-to-infrastructure communication systems, whichcould further evaluate inputs and decisions and transmit the decisionsand results to ETE databases in other cars to improve their futuredecisions. Additionally, the ETE in one car could communicate with ETEsin nearby cars over vehicle-to-vehicle communication systems to learnabout the performance of other cars on the local roads, and any expectedor unexpected conditions encountered. These databases are represented bythe database inputs in FIGS. 14 and 15 .

FIG. 10 shows two pairs of parallel-connected battery cells with a 20%resistance mismatch. The first pair has (1) and (2), and the second pairhas (3) and (4). Cells (1) and (3) have 1.0-Ω internal resistances, andcells (2) and (4) have 1.2-Ω internal resistances; every cell has thesame voltage V_(B). Preferred embodiments of the invention may detectand correct mismatched pairs of cells, as shown in FIG. 27 . Afterreconfiguration, one pair of cells has (1) and (3), both withR_(i)=1.0Ω, and the other pair has (2) and (4), both with R_(i)=1.2Ω.This configuration can greatly extend the lifespan of the batteries.

FIG. 28 shows a series of five identical battery cells numbered (1)through (5) which is in parallel with a series of four identical batterycells numbered (6) through (9). Cells (1) through (5) have 1.0-Ωinternal resistances, and cells (6) through (9) have 1.25-Ω internalresistances. The series of five cells and the series of four cells bothhave total internal resistances of 5.0Ω. When a voltage source or anelectrical load is connected across terminals (10) and (11), the samecurrent flows through both series of cells. This configuration may, forexample, allow multiple cells with mismatched resistances to charge (ordischarge) at once.

FIG. 29 shows nine capacitors of equal capacitances and with internalresistances arranged in the same configuration as the battery cells inFIG. 28 . Capacitors (1) through (5) have 1.0-Ω internal resistances,and capacitors (6) through (9) have 1.25-Ω internal resistances. When avoltage source is connected across terminals (10) and (11), capacitors(1) through (5) each acquire one-fifth the source voltage, andcapacitors (6) through (9) each acquire one-fourth the source voltage.The energy stored in a capacitor U_(C) is given by the formula

U _(C)=½CV²

where C is the capacitance in farads and V is the voltage in volts. Theenergy stored per capacitor (1) through (5) is

$U_{C} = {{( \frac{1}{2} ){C( \frac{1}{5} )}^{2}} = {\frac{C}{50}{joules}}}$

The energy stored per capacitor (6) through (9) is

$U_{C} = {{( \frac{1}{2} ){C( \frac{1}{4} )}^{2}} = {\frac{C}{32}{joules}}}$

The energy per capacitor (6) through (9) is greater than the energy percapacitor (1) through (5).

6 Overview for Measuring Load and Source Impedances

FIG. 20 shows a non-ideal voltage source V_(S) with internal impedanceZ_(i) and a load impedance Z_(L). They are coupled to a configurationmodule. The maximum power transfer theorem states that the sourcetransfers maximum power to the load only when Z_(i) equals the complexconjugate of Z_(L), i.e., Z_(i)=Z_(L)*. For the ETE to transfer maximumpower from the source to the load, it must determine Z_(L) and Z_(i). Asshown in FIG. 6 , it first supplies a known test voltage V₁ to Z_(L),and then it measures the resulting current I₁. Note that voltage V₁ andcurrent I₁ may be DC or AC phasors. By Ohm's Law, Z_(L)=V₁/I₁. Themodule can then disconnect from the load after the measurement. If theload is too large to measure, the module may take a measurement across asmaller impedance in series or in parallel to bring the measurementwithin the range of the ammeter. Alternatively, it may measure thevoltage across a constant current source.

To determine Z_(i), first the open circuit voltage V_(OC) is measured(FIG. 7 ). Then the current I₂ is measured through a circuit with asource V_(S)=V_(OC) and an impedance Z_(i)+Z₂, where I₂=V_(S)/(Z_(i)+Z₂)(FIG. 8 ). Rearranging the formula yields Z_(i)=(V_(S) _(OC) /I₂)−Z₂. Asan alternative way to calculate the internal impedance, the voltageacross Z₂ is measured after measuring V_(OC) (FIG. 9 ). The formula forthe internal impedance is Z_(i)=(V_(OC)−V₂)/(V₂/Z₂)=V_(OC)*(Z₂/V₂)−Z₂.Now the ETE knows the load impedance and the source's internalimpedance. A similar procedure can be repeated for circuits shown inFIGS. 18 and 19 .

7 Deficiencies in Prior Art

FIG. 4 is a prior art configuration of a reconfigurable energy storagesystem described in the '702 patent with ESS1 (1), ESS2 (2), a DC link(3), and switches (4)-(6). Switch (4) couples ESS1 to the DC link.Switch (6) couples ESS2 to the DC link. Switch (5) couples ESS1 and ESS2to the DC link in a series connection. Closing both switches (4) and (6)couples ESS1 and ESS2 to the DC link in a parallel connection.

The '702 patent lacks a configuration module that would pair a sourceimpedance with a load impedance. Furthermore, the '702 patent lacks anETE that monitors impedances and corrects them according to a desiredmode. In the present invention a correction may be triggered when thepower source or load changes, when the impedances of the elements changeby a threshold, when a period of time has elapsed, and/or by othermeans.

Element (7) in FIG. 24 represents an ETE between the DC link and the ESSconfiguration. FIG. 25 is a Thevenin-equivalent circuit containing avoltage source V_(S) supplied by the ESSs, an internal source impedanceZ_(i), and a load impedance Z_(L), where the DC Link is the load. Duringregenerative charging, the DC link becomes V_(S) and the ESSs becomeZ_(L). The ETE may also be placed between ESS1 and the DC link andbetween ESS1 and ESS2. The previous example applies to those circuits inFIGS. 18 and 19 , in which either an output impedance replaces thesource impedance, or an input impedance replaces the load.

Preferred embodiments of the invention may also reside within the ESS asdepicted by elements (8) and (9) in FIG. 26 . Such embodiments areespecially valuable for reconfiguring lithium-ion battery cells within abattery pack. As previously stated, at 4.5 Coulomb charge and discharge,a 20% internal resistance mismatch reduces lifetime by 40% when comparedto batteries with similar resistances.

According to Sun et al. (“An Adaptive Power-Split Strategy forBattery-Supercapacitor Powertrain—Design, Simulation, and Experiment”.https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7819565. Accessed Jan. 28, 2020),high temperatures and large loads shorten the lifespans of EV batterypacks. Tesla, Inc. compensates by oversizing the battery packs in theircars, thereby increasing weight and cost.

The CAN bus was invented to reduce the physical size and cost of thewiring harness in vehicles. According to Burkacky et al.(https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/rethinking-car-software-and-electronics-architecture),presently the CAN bus and network of ECUs is unsuitable for the comingexplosion of data and demand for processing power in intelligentvehicles, which may utilize artificial intelligence and smart sensors.

8 Detailed Methodology 8.1 Receiving Inputs

The categories of inputs to the demands module (DM) are broadlycategorized as user inputs, external inputs, and sensor inputs.

8.1.1 User Inputs

User inputs are the parameters usually coming directly from the user,such as the trip destination, heating and cooling settings, and forceson the pedals. Another parameter is the user-selected driving mode. The2015 Chevy Volt is a plug-in hybrid vehicle which lets a driver choosefrom the modes Electric, Extended Range, Sport, Mountain, and Hold. Eachmode controls the amount of power the motors draw from either thebattery or the engine-generator.

8.1.2 External Inputs

External inputs are the parameters not directly controlled by the user,such as:

-   -   Speed and location    -   Fuel tank level    -   ESS charge levels    -   Computer vision    -   Blind spot detection    -   GPS data    -   HVAC system settings    -   Age of vehicle parts and electrical components    -   Road conditions    -   Road inclination and curvature (instantaneous and rate of change        over time)    -   Traffic    -   Weather and environment        -   Barometric pressure        -   Humidity inside and outside the vehicle        -   Temperatures inside and outside the vehicle        -   Precipitation    -   Information about public chargers along the route        -   Locations        -   Prices        -   Companies/networks    -   Speed limits    -   Road construction    -   Police speed traps    -   Emissions limits    -   Access to HOV lanes    -   Approaching emergency vehicles    -   Number of occupants    -   Weight carried and distribution of weight within the vehicle    -   Tire pressure    -   Entertainment system usage    -   Attentiveness of driver    -   Working Limits of Components        -   Min/Max Voltage        -   Min/Max Temperature    -   Ratings of components    -   Inputs from environment sensors        -   Radar        -   Ultrasound        -   Cameras            -   Vision            -   Infrared and forward-looking infrared        -   Microphones    -   Noise, vibration, and harshness

8.1.3 Sensor Inputs of Components

Sensor inputs are the electrical characteristics of on-board andoff-board electrical components, such as charge, voltage, amperage,impedance, capacitance, inductance, temperature of components, and EMFstrength. Section 2.3 describes techniques for determining some of theseelectrical characteristics. In one embodiment of the invention, some ofthe sensor inputs are detected by an OMRON 2JCIE-BL01-P1 EnvironmentSensor(https://www.newark.com/omron-electronic-components/2jcie-bl01-p1/environment-sensor-temp-humidity/dp/72AC8842?st=2JCIE).This device has six sensors for detecting temperature, humidity, light,UV index, barometric pressure, and sound noise. As a PCB model, it maybe integrated into the ETE, and it transmits data over Bluetooth.

8.2 Determining a Current Desired Mode of Operation

The demands module selects one of several operating modes. Some modes ofoperation include:

-   -   1. Performance mode—This mode transfers the maximum real power        from the source to the load. Maximum power point tracking may be        used to attain this mode.    -   2. Efficiency mode—This mode transfers much more real power to        the load than to the other impedances in the circuit.    -   3. Balanced mode—This mode transfers an amount of real power to        the load that is between performance and efficiency modes.    -   4. Wasteful mode—This mode transfers much less real power to the        load than to the other impedances.    -   5. Dynamic braking mode—This mode temporarily converts the        motors of a moving EV into generators, thereby converting some        of the EV's kinetic energy into electrical energy. Sub-modes        manage the generated electric power:        -   a. Rheostatic braking—Power immediately dissipates as heat            through resistors.        -   b. Regenerative braking—Power charges one or more ESS.        -   c. Diversion braking—Divert excess power directly to other            systems like IVAC or component heaters/coolers which can            make use of it. For example, only running the HVAC when            going down a steep slope.

The types of dynamic braking can work in all modes including performancemode.

-   -   6. OFF, charger connected to power—The EV is off and its battery        charger is connected to a power source, which may be an electric        grid, a solar panel, an external battery pack, or some other        source. The power connection may be wired or wireless. This is        the best time to start heating or cooling the cabin, running        computer tasks, and charging the battery to a higher state of        charge. Battery charging may be configured to extend battery        lifespan and reduce electricity costs by keeping the state of        charge below damaging levels; by charging during off-peak hours;        and by scheduling charging to meet the user's schedule to reduce        leakage    -   7. OFF, charger disconnected from power—The EV is off and its        battery charger is disconnected from power. It may run climate        control more conservatively.    -   8. Idle—The car is on but not moving, similar to OFF. It has two        modes:        -   a. Charger connected to power        -   b. Charger disconnected from power

The demands module selects a desired mode of operation based on theinputs and certain constraints. The constraints may include parameterssuch as a time limit, an energy budget, or a monetary budget. Supposethe demands module selects a mode of operation for a certain energybudget. Power is a function of both travel time and all the parametersdiscussed in the previous subsection. Since the energy needed for thetrip is the time integral of power, energy is also a function of thoseparameters. Mathematically,

Energy (parameters)=∫Power (t, parameters) dt.

An internal table can be produced from these calculations. Table 1tabulates the milestones, parameters, and selected modes for ahypothetical 5-mile trip from an office to a house in a plug-in hybridvehicle.

At mile 0, the battery has 80% state of charge (SoC), the car is warmingor cooling the cabin in preparation for the occupants, and the DM hasselected idle mode. The trip then begins, and for the first 1.4 milesthe DM selects performance mode because there is an incline ahead thatwill partially recharge the batteries through regenerative braking. Theroad is downhill from mile 1.4 to 2.0. The DM selects maximumregeneration mode. The road is flat from mile 2.0 to 3.4, so the DMselects efficiency mode. There is a red traffic light expected at mile3.6, so the car again regeneratively brakes between mile 3.4 and 3.6,and the DM enters idle mode at the red light. The motors benefit frommaximum power when accelerating from this traffic light, so the DMselects performance mode. Mile 4.3 to 5.0 are residential streets, sothe DM selects efficiency mode. The car arrives at the destination with60% SoC. The car is turned off, and the mode briefly switches to OFF,disconnected from power. Motors and ESSs begin to cool down. When thepower cord is plugged into the charging port, the DM detects it andenters the mode OFF, connected to power, and charging begins.

TABLE 1 Sample trip for driving a PHEV from an office to a houseMilestone (Miles from current location) Parameters Mode selected 0 80%SoC, warming or Idle mode cooling cabin for driver 0 to 1.4 <80% SoC,downward Performance mode incline ahead 1.4 to 2.0 Downhill, regenconfig Regen, max braking mode 2.0 to 3.4 Flat road Efficiency mode 3.4to 3.6 Red light ahead Regen, max braking 3.6 Stopped at red light Idlemode 3.6 to 4.3 Accelerate from traffic Performance mode light 4.3 to5.0 Residential streets, Efficiency mode (stop) 60% SoC 5.0 Cool OFF,disconnected down from power 5.0 Wall Connected to power OFF, connectedto recharge power

8.3 Electrical Characteristics Determination Module

The electrical characteristics determination module (ECDM) determinesthe internal impedance(s) and load impedance(s) of the components. Whilesome impedances may be determined easily, determining others may requirespecialized instruments, databases, calculations, predictions, andalgorithms. Some parameters of impedances for battery and SC cellsinclude the number of cells, SoC, temperature, and age.

The ECDM may determine electrical characteristics of all threecomponents in FIG. 5 . The procedure is shown in FIGS. 6-9 . Todetermine Z_(L) (FIG. 6 ), the ECDM computes V₁/I₁, where V₁ is a knowntest voltage and I₁ is a current measured by an ammeter. To determineV_(S) (FIG. 7 ), the ECDM reads an open circuit voltage V_(OC). Todetermine Z_(i) (FIG. 8 ), the ECDM computes (V_(OC)/I₂)−Z₂, where Z₂ isa known test impedance and I₂ is a current measured by an ammeter. Todetermine Z_(i) another way (FIG. 9 ), the ECDM computesV_(OC)*(Z₂/V₂)−Z₂, where Z₂ is a known test impedance and V₂ is avoltage measured by a voltmeter.

The internal impedance of lithium-ion batteries and SCs depends on anumber of factors including SoC, number of charge cycles, temperature,and age. The ECDM may determine internal impedances by takingmeasurements and/or finding them in a table of values. Additionally, theECDM may predict future impedances. The ECDM may also determineresistances, capacitances, and inductances of components.

8.4 Calculation Module

The calculation module utilizes the determined internal impedance of oneor more of the components in a calculation to determine a configurationof the components to meet the needs of the calculated mode of operation.Calculations are described here for performance mode, efficiency mode,balanced mode, and wasteful mode. Over time, artificial intelligencesuch as machine learning could be used to improve the calculations tomeet as many user's needs while conserving as much energy as possible.These calculations may be performed locally or in the cloud. The ETEwould further benefit from exchanging data and performance evaluationswith ETEs within other cars over communication channels.

8.4.1 Performance Mode

In performance mode, the source sends maximum power to the load. Thecalculation module must satisfy Z_(i)=Z_(L)* under AC conditions andR_(i)≅R_(L) under DC conditions by activating components within theconfiguration module and/or reconfiguring the loads.

8.4.2 Efficiency and Balanced Modes

In efficiency mode, the real power consumed by the load impedancegreatly exceeds the real power consumed by the source's internalimpedance. In balanced mode, the real power consumed by the loadimpedance moderately exceeds the real power consumed by the source'sinternal impedance. Efficiency mode requires that Re(Z_(L))>>Re(Z_(i))and balanced mode requires that Re(Z_(L))>Re(Z_(i)). The calculationmodule may increase Re(Z_(L)) and/or decrease Re(Z_(i)) to meet theseconditions by means of connecting additional resistances in series andparallel. FIG. 21 shows a non-ideal voltage source, V_(Th), with asource internal impedance, Z_(Th), and two loads, Z₁ and Z₂. When thecalculation module receives a request for high efficiency, itautomatically measures and then rewire Z_(L1) and Z_(L2) to form a largeimpedance. The calculation module may place Z_(L1) and Z_(L2) in seriesas shown in FIG. 23 . It may also place additional impedances in series.Balanced mode acts similarly, except the total impedance would be lessthan that for efficiency mode.

The calculation module may also decrease the source's internalimpedance. It might reconfigure the power supply so that cells with alower internal impedance supply power to the load. According to anarticle “Temperature, Overcharge and Short-Circuit Studies of Batteriesused in Electric Vehicles” by A. Lebowski of Gdynia Maritime University(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316171277_Temperature_Overcharge_and_Short-Circuit_Studies_of_Batteries_used_in_Electric_Vehicles.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020), the internal resistance of lithium-ion cellsdecreases when their temperature rises. If the power supply comes fromlithium-ion cells, the calculation module could increase the temperatureof the cells by harnessing their internal heat generation or warmingthem from heaters. Similarly, the impedance magnitude of SCs fallsexponentially with increasing temperature, according to an articletitled “Experimental impedance investigation of an ultracapacitor atdifferent conditions for electric vehicle applications” by L. Zhang(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378775315006904.Accessed Jan. 28, 2020). The article states, “The experimental resultsindicate that the impedance magnitude exhibits an exponential increaseas the temperature decreases, while the impedance phase at relativelylow or high frequencies is sensitive to temperature variation.” Notethat placing more battery or SC cells in parallel with equal voltage andinternal impedance does not affect the network's efficiency becauseparallel sources are independent.

8.4.3 Wasteful Mode

In wasteful mode, power consumed by a source's internal impedancegreatly exceeds the power consumed by a load's impedance, which meansRe(Z_(i))>>Re(Z_(L)) for linear circuits. The calculation module mayeither decrease Re(Z_(L)) or increase Re(Z_(i)) to meet this condition.The calculation module can use strategies opposite to those used inefficiency mode. Forming series connections of sources and reducing thetemperature of lithium-ion battery sources and SC sources would increaseRe(Z_(i)). Conversely, removing resistive loads from series connections,placing resistive loads in parallel (FIG. 22 ), and increasing thetemperature of battery and SC loads would decrease Re(Z_(L)).

8.5 Configuration Module

The configuration module configures the electrical network to match thecurrent desired configuration of the components. In one embodiment ofthe design, the configuration module sends control signals to thereconfigurable connections which are located outside the module. In asecond embodiment of the design, the configuration module contains thereconfigurable connections. In a third embodiment of the design, theconfiguration module is a combination of the first and secondembodiments of the design.

Components may be internal or external to the electrical network.Internal components include batteries, capacitors, resistors, inductors,and transistors. External components include the electrical grid, powerplants, public chargers, solar panels, in-road-chargers, and the powersystems of other EVs. Connections that may reconfigure the componentsmay be mechanical, solid state, inductive, capacitive, andMicro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS). Mechanical connections includebuttons, switches, relays, potentiometers, and fuses. Solid stateconnections such as unidirectional and bidirectional switches consist ofdiodes and transistors. Inductive and capacitive connections includeinductors and capacitors.

The configuration module allows SCs to charge from a low voltage sourceand then discharge a much higher voltage. In one embodiment, six SCscharge in parallel to a maximum voltage of 2.7 V per SC. When they arereconfigured in series, their total voltage becomes 16.7 V.

FIG. 32 shows a network consisting of six components connected to aconfiguration module containing single-pole double-throw switches. Thenetwork has terminals A and B. In one embodiment of the network, the sixcomponents are configured in series with respect to terminals A and B.Table 2 shows the positions of the switches for a series configuration.In a second embodiment, the six components are configured in parallelwith respect to terminals A and B. Table 3 shows the positions of theswitches for a parallel configuration. In a third embodiment, the sixcomponents are configured in a 3-2 configuration, wherein there are 2parallel groups of 3 components in series with respect to terminals Aand B. Table 4 shows the positions of the switches for a 3-2configuration. In a fourth embodiment, the six components are configuredin a 2-3 configuration, wherein there are 3 parallel groups of 2components in series with respect to terminals A and B. Table 5 showsthe positions of the switches for a 2-3 configuration.

Suppose the six components in FIG. 32 are SCs with voltage ratings of2.7 V, and assume they have no internal impedance nor leakage currents.A reconfigurable electrical network allows the SCs to fully charge whenthe voltage across terminals A and B is any value between 2.7 V and 16.2V. In one embodiment of the network, a voltage source of 2.7 V chargesSCs configured in a parallel configuration. In a second embodiment, avoltage source of 5.4 V charges SCs configured in a 2-3 configuration.In a third embodiment, a voltage source of 8.1 V charges SCs configuredin a 3-2 configuration. In a fourth embodiment, a voltage source of 16.2V charges SCs configured in a series configuration. Although fullycharging the SCs is ideal, the electrical network may also configure theSCs in a way that partially charge them if a maximum voltage isunavailable.

Once the SCs are charged, the reconfigurable electrical network allowsthe SCs to discharge across terminals A and B at various voltage levels.In one embodiment of the network, SCs are configured in parallel to meeta load of 2.7 V. In a second embodiment, SCs are configured in 2-3 tomeet a load of 5.4 V. In a third embodiment, SCs are configured in 3-2to meet a load of 8.1 V. In a fourth embodiment, SCs are configured inseries to meet a load of 16.2 V.

TABLE 2 Series Configuration Switch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Position DownUp Down Up Down Up Down Up Down Up

TABLE 3 Parallel Configuration Switch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Position UpDown Up Down Up Down Up Down Up Down

TABLE 4 3-2 Configuration (2 parallel groups of 3 components in series)Switch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Position Down Up Down Up Down Down Up DownUp Down

TABLE 5 2-3 Configuration (3 parallel groups of 2 components in series)Switch 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Position Down Up Up Down Down Up Up DownDown Up

8.6 Repeating Steps

The electrical tuning engine repeats the previous steps to ensure thatthe configuration of components meets the latest desired configurationgiven the latest inputs. The electrical tuning engine monitors theinputs and the components and waits for certain conditions to change. Acondition may include a milestone, a time duration, or an “event” duringthe trip. Events may include new user inputs, external inputs, sensorinputs, and external data; changes to a power source or a load; andchanges to the impedance of the elements by some threshold. Internal tothe electrical tuning engine, the repetition logic may make use of atimer, an interrupt, a waypoint, or an odometer metric for a certaindistance traveled. A timer may be used to initiate periodic repetitionswhen conditions do not change often (e.g., driving at a constant speed).An interrupt may be used when conditions change so fast that repetitionmust begin immediately (e.g., braking and emergency detection). Awaypoint may be detected by means of GPS, road signage, dead reckoning,or a sensor device in the road. The repetition logic may also make useof TCP/IP messages, Internal Process Communication (IPC) messages,signals and signal handlers, user callbacks, or other methods ofinitiating the repetition.

It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes could bemade to the embodiments described above without departing from the broadinventive concept thereof. It is understood, therefore, that thisinvention is not limited to the particular embodiments disclosed, but itis intended to cover modifications within the spirit and scope of thepresent invention.

What is claimed is:
 1. An automated method for adjusting an electricalconfiguration of a plurality of components of an electrical networkassociated with a vehicle in order to tune electrical characteristics ofthe electrical network to continuously match a dynamically changingdesired mode of operation of the electrical network associated with thevehicle, the electrical characteristics including a source impedance anda load impedance, the method comprising: (a) receiving by an electricaltuning engine (ETE) associated with the vehicle (i) user inputs, (ii)external inputs, and (iii) a first set of sensor inputs from thecomponents, and determining therefrom a current desired mode ofoperation, wherein the components are parts of DC or AC power systems,the components including at least one of (A) motors, and (B) heating,ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) components; (b) receiving (i) asecond set of sensor inputs from the components, (ii) inputs from anoperating database that maintains historical data and data about thecomponents, and (iii) inputs from external data sources, and determiningtherefrom electrical characteristics of the components; (c) exchangingwith an ETE in another vehicle data and performance evaluations over acommunication channel; (d) calculating a current desired configurationof the components by using (i) the current desired mode of operation,(ii) the determined electrical characteristics of the components, and(iii) the data and performance evaluations exchanged with the ETE in theother vehicle; (e) configuring the electrical network using aconfiguration module to match the current desired configuration of thecomponents, wherein the configuration module configures the sourceimpedance and the load impedance to match the current desiredconfiguration of the components; and (f) repeating steps (a)-(e),thereby reconfiguring the electrical configuration of the components ofthe electrical network in order to tune the electrical characteristicsof the electrical network associated with the vehicle to continuouslymatch a dynamically changing desired mode of operation of the electricalnetwork associated with the vehicle.